- Understand why document design is important
- Well-designed pages are much easier to navigate and become more engaging
- People would prefer to skim a document and be able to find specific sections
- An audience judges first by what they see-is this too much work to read?
- Page design should promote chunking
- Learn design skills that are needed in today's workplace
- Desktop Publishing:
- combines word processing, typesetting, and graphics
- Adobe InDesign, Adobe Framemaker, Quark
- Electronic Publishing
- documents in digital format for the Web
- Adobe RoboHelp, Adobe Dreamweaver
- Style Sheets and Style Guides
- Style sheets provide consistent formatting throughout a document (typefaces, fonts, headings)
- Style guides ensure consistent formatting between different types of documents
- Know how to use white space and margins
- Consistency is key
- Different types of paper can be used for different documents
- Use page numbers, headers, and footers so that readers can easily navigate the document
- Grids are useful for creating a balanced design
- White space can add emphasis to an area by isolating related elements
- Margins help to de-clutter the page
- Line Length and Spacing
- Line length needs to be appropriate for the document.
- 8½ x 11 in. document- 60-70 characters per line
- Long lines tire and bore the reader; Short lines disrupt the normal rhythm of reading.
- Line spacing needs to be consistent
- Paragraphs
- Long paragraphs are used for history/ background information.
- Short paragraphs make complex information easier to digest
- Avoid orphans and widows at the beginning and end of a paragraph.
- Lists
- Embedded lists are used within the running text (commas)
- Vertical lists are dropped out of the running text to draw attention
- Vertical lists use a verbal or visual signal to indicate each element
- Use parallel grammatical form
- Know how to choose typefaces and type sizes
- Typeface (font) refers to all the letters and characters within one particular family
- Different typefaces convey different feelings and are useful for different situations
- There are serif typefaces and sans serif typefaces
- Serif typefaces make printed copy more readable
- Sans serif type is ideal for marginal comments,headings, examples, tables, and captions
- Typeface height is determined in points between the ascender and descender
- Body copy runs between 10 and 12 point
- The book says to use full caps sparingly and save them for section headings or highlighting words/phrases.
(Full caps are actually more difficult to read, which makes people more likely to ignore them. Although it is common practice to use all caps for things like WARNING and headings, this is not the most effective method of getting someone to read. Emphasis can be achieved by using bold, underlined, different sized, different colored fonts. Warning or Warning or Warning or Warning or Warning is more effective than WARNING.) - Know how to use color, shading, and other highlighting elements
- Indents, horizontal rules, background screens, boldface, italics, and color can all add emphasis, however, these things should all be used sparingly or a document will become cluttered.
- Know how to use headings, subheads, and running heads
- Headings should determine level
- Types of Headings:
- Topic: Words or short phrases; When you have several headings
- Statement: Sentence; When you want to assert something specific about the topic
- Question: Questions posed the same way a reader might ask it; When you want to invite the reader to be actively involved
- Headings should be visually consistent and grammatically parallel
- Running heads and feet help readers find material and stay oriented
- Understand that on-screen documents have special design requirements
- One of the most important things to do before designing a document is determining the media for viewing.
- Web pages have to be designed to accommodate small screen sizes, decreased resolution, and resistance to scrolling.
- Ordinary word processors are not very useful for creating good-quality web pages.
- Online help pages require consistency
- Adobe Acrobat and PDF Files retain their formatting on screen and in print . They can be linked to as a normal web page as well as downloaded and e-mailed.
Ch. 13: Page Design in Workplace Documents
Ch.12: designing Visual Information
· Understand the role of visuals in technical communication
o Visuals help people to process information
§ What does it look like?
§ How is it organized?
o Graphs instead of listed numbers- Numbers are easier to comprehend and compare
· Determine when to use visuals
o Use visuals when they can help clarify your point or enhance the text.
o Visuals are used to decorate but, more importantly, to support your discussion
o Four Categories of Visuals: tables, graphs, charts, graphic illustrations
o Tables: display organized data across columns and rows for easy comparison
o Graphs: translate numbers into shapes, shades, and patters
o Charts: depict relationships via geometric, arrows, lines, and other design elements
o Graphic Illustrations: rely on pictures rather than on data or words
· Select the right visuals for your readers
o What is the purpose of the visual?
o Who is my audience?
o How is my message best conveyed?
o All visuals require:
§ Title and number
§ Clean design
§ Labels and legends
§ Nearness to the associate text
§ Cited sources
· Create tables, graphs, charts, illustrations, photographs, and videos
o Tables shouldn’t be overly complex or contain too much information-complex tables can be used to bury information
§ Numerical Tables: Compare exact values
§ Prose Tables: Organize verbal information
o Graphs show comparisons and trends-can be used to show one or more relationships
§ Bar graphs: multiple, horizontal-bar, stacked-bar, 100-percent, 3-D
· Show comparison
§ Line graphs- helps readers synthesize large bodies of information: simple, multiline, deviation, band/area, multiple-band
· Show trends over time
§ Charts: pie [relate parts to a whole], exploded pie, flowcharts [steps], tree charts [relationships between ideas], Gantt and PERT (project planning), pictogram
§ Graphic Illustrations: diagrams (exploded, cutaway, block), maps, photographs, videos
o Different software has different uses
§ Graphics software, presentation software, spreadsheet software, word-processing programs
o Symbols and icons are often more easily understood than words- international audiences, children, people who have difficulty reading
o You can use the internet for graphics, but pay attention to copyright and licensing information
· Increase visual appeal by using color appropriately
o Color is used to make things appear more interesting and focus attention
o Color can help clarify complex relationships
o It can break up material and reveal structure
§ Headings
§ Checklists
§ Instructions
§ Examples
§ Key ideas
· Identify ethical issues when using visuals
o It is your responsibility to represent the real picture.
o Visuals make it easy to persuade people one way or the other by skewing numbers.
o Present the complete picture
o Distortion is not the same thing as emphasis- distortion is unethical
· Understand how cultural considerations affect your choice of visuals
o A visual is only universal if the graphic is not misinterpreted.
o Some cultures read right to left rather than left to right as in the US.
o Ireland: green and orange have political connotation
o Muslim cultures: green is a holy color
o US: green means go, safety
Ch. 11: Editing for a Professional Style and Tone
· Appreciate the role of style in any document
o First, the document needs to be readable- precisely chosen words and sentences that are easy to understand
o Sentence structure, sentence length, sentence connections, words and phrases, and tone are elements of writing style.
o Style needs to be clear, concise, fluent, exact, and likable.
· Write clear, concise, and fluent sentences
o Clarity
§ Pronouns have to clearly represent which noun they replace.
§ Clarify modifiers
§ Avoid putting too many nouns together
§ Word order should be based on coherence and emphasis.
§ Correct emphasis usually falls at the end of the sentence; at the beginning of the sentence for instructions
§ Use active voice unless the audience doesn’t need to know the agent-then use passive voice.
§ Keep the amount of information in once sentence low so that readers can process.
o Conciseness
§ Most information in the fewest amount of necessary words
§ Remove
· wordy phrases
· redundancy
· repetition
· “there is” and “there are” phrases
· Needless information at the beginning of a sentence
· Excessive prepositions
· Clutter Words
· Qualifiers
§ Use strong, direct verbs
§ Use positive language
o Fluency
§ Combine related ideas
§ Help readers make connections and keep them engaged by combining related things and using short sentences for emphasis.
· Use precise language
o Language can often hide the intended message rather than communicate it.
o Use simple wording that is relevant to the situation and avoid using jargon- simplify simplify.
o Keep in mind that someone might not understand an acronym
o Don’t use clichés or euphemism
o Don’t make overstatements and be specific
o Use analogies to explain things
· Achieve a tone that connects with your audience
o Your tone is your personality on paper.
o There are different tones, appropriate for different situation: informal, semiformal, formal
o For everything besides formal-toned documents, balance your use of contractions.
o Create a personal connection
o Use active voice and emphasize the positive.
o Don’t be too informal and definitely be appropriate
o Avoid sexist terms by using words that are more inclusive
· Understand that various cultures have various style preferences
o Some cultures prefer long, complex sentences; others are looking for respect and politeness over clarity.
o In some cultures, only animals are referred to as male or female.
o American cultural references don’t typically make sense outside of the US
· Understand that words can have unintended legal and ethical consequences
o Never downplay risks or promise more than you can deliver. Some words and phrases can set you up for failure
o Make sure instructions are clear. If instructions aren’t clear on certain products, someone could be injured.
o Don’t focus on attacking the competition; focus on your product instead. When you attack someone it usually speaks to your character more than theirs.
o When evaluating an employee, instead of offering judgments, talk about the specific, factual things they did that violated policy.
· Recognize the benefits and drawbacks of digital editing tools
o Spell check is limited. Saying “I new that” is incorrect, although the word “new” is a word.
o Pay attention to their and there.
o Always proofread!
Ch. 10: Organizing for Readers
Work from an introduction-body-conclusion structure
o The standard structure of any document is introduction, body, and then conclusion.
• Introduction: Gains attention, gives the writer’s viewpoint, lays out
framework for the rest of the document.
• Body: Sticks to the writer’s viewpoint by offering coherent support within the framework that was established in the introduction.
• Conclusion: Time for review—here’s what you just read and what to do
with this information. Makes a prediction, offers a solution,
or suggests more investigation
• Introduction: Gains attention, gives the writer’s viewpoint, lays out
framework for the rest of the document.
• Body: Sticks to the writer’s viewpoint by offering coherent support within the framework that was established in the introduction.
• Conclusion: Time for review—here’s what you just read and what to do
with this information. Makes a prediction, offers a solution,
or suggests more investigation
o Sometimes varied structure is effective with the use of visual guides that add interest
· Create informal and formal outlines
o You have to start somewhere—outlining strategy
• Make a list of the topics you plan to cover
• Reorganize your list logically by ordering the topics
I. Introduction
A. Topic
B. Topic
o Formal Outlines for technical documents use decimal notation
2.0 Section
2.1 Topic
2.1.1 subtopic
o Outlines can reveal methodical thinking or errors in thinking.
· Prepare a storyboard for a long document
o Storyboarding helps people envision the document by breaking it into modules.
o Works great for collaborative projects because it removes the disconnect between each person’s contribution.
· Shape effective paragraphs
o Support paragraphs should be able to stand on their own. The paragraph starts with a topic sentence, followed by explanation/ support, and then conclusion.
o The topic sentence is the main point at the beginning of the paragraph. It tells the reader what the paragraph is about. A topic statement is two or more sentences and used for complex ideas.
o When everything in a paragraph belongs, the paragraph has unity. The ideas following the topic sentence have to do their job. For example, your topic sentence (Pugs are the cutest dogs ever and everyone should have a pug) should not be followed with (If Superman ate kryptonite he would turn into a black hole). The ideas are not at all related.
o An effective paragraph is coherent. To achieve coherence, the sentences need to be longer, rather than short and they need to be in the correct order. There should also be transitions to link related ideas smoothly.
o Paragraph length is another important part of creating documents because the length of the paragraph can signal to the reader what type of document they are looking at. Highly technical or instructive documents will use short paragraphs or lists. When writing anything about concepts or attitudes, the support paragraphs will be from 100-300 words. The key thing to remember is to be thorough no matter the length.
· Determine the best sequence for your material
o Sequencing reveals a relationship and different forms of sequencing are used to show different relationships.
o Spatial sequencing begins at one location and ends at another and is used for describing an actual object. For example, a table might be described from the floor, to the legs, to the tabletop.
o Chronological sequencing follows events as they happen in time. Things described in steps are chronologically sequenced.
o Effect-to-cause sequencing begins with a problem and then goes backwards to find the causes.
o Cause-to-effect sequencing begins with the action and then follows the results.
o An emphatic sequence begins with the most important thing and then arranges the following reasons/ examples in order from greatest to least importance.
o Problem-causes-solution sequencing describes a problem, its causes, and then proposed solutions.
o Comparison-contrast sequences compares and contrasts two or more things either by listing information about each thing separately and parallel or by combining the two lists and comparing things on a point-by-point basis.
· Chunk information into discrete units
o Chunking groups together related information in smaller amounts so that readers can take in the information. The information can be chunked visually with the use of white space, headings, or other page design elements. Internet writing is chunked into smaller sections than printed writing because people expect information in a shorter amount of time and space. They want to be able to focus on what is important.
· Provide overviews of longer documents
o After organizing your entire document, prepare an overview (preview) for your readers. They want to know if the document is relevant to their needs. These overviews can be for a section of the document or for the entire thing.
o Different cultures expect information to be organized in different ways. American documents are abrupt and to the point while documents from Spain or Russia can contain digressions from the main point.
Do you want the bad news or good news first?
o Different cultures expect information to be organized in different ways. American documents are abrupt and to the point while documents from Spain or Russia can contain digressions from the main point.
Do you want the bad news or good news first?
In America, letters and memos tend to begin with good or at least neutral information before easing into bad news. British letters and memos, however, begin with the bad news.
Ch.9: Summarizing Research Findings and Other Information
- Considering Audience and Purposeo Summarizing takes main ideas and compresses them. Summaries act as a research aid, but they are also useful in daily situations in order to get important information across quickly.o Employees often will provide their employers with summaries to keep them up to date.o Summaries are important for decision-makers who don’t have time to go through a long document. The long document is typically summarized for that purpose.o A summary should§ Describe the document§ Help readers to decide how much of the document they should read§ Give the reader framework for the full documento The essential message needs to be communicated accurately and concisely· What Readers Expect from a Summaryo Accuracy, Completeness, Readability (clear and straightforward), Conciseness (informative and brief), and nontechnical style (simplified complex ideas).o To summarize information§ Read the whole original document and then focus on the essential information while rereading.§ Pare down the excess details and then write in your own words.§ Edit your version for conciseness.§ Insert transitions and combine related ideas.§ Ensure that you have covered the main ideas without changing the actual information.§ Document your source.· Special Types of Summarieso Summaries can be in different locations and contain different amounts of detail.§ Closing Summary· Located at the beginning of the conclusion section—review s the major points from the document.§ Informative Abstract (Summary)· Located after the title page—describes research methods, reviews main facts, and condenses conclusions and recommendations.§ Descriptive Abstract· Describes a report without giving the main points and helps people to decide if they should read the report· Written for someone who does not have time to read the original document.§ Executive Abstract· Summarizes the report from beginning to end and is aimed at decision-makers not a technical audience.· The goal is to get people to act on the information.· What…o is the issue?o was found?o does it mean?o action should be taken?· Ethical and Global Considerations in Summarizing Informationo Because of the internet, readers now expect to read the least amount while still receiving all the important information.o Websites rely on chunking related information to keep readers engaged by minimizing scrolling.o Any time someone summarizes someone else’s work, they choose what to leave in, take out, and emphasize which could distort the original message.o Original viewpoint, intent, and voice can all vanish in a summary—distortions are potential plagiarism.o When it comes to a global audience, it’s important to consider that what may be common knowledge to you, might not be so to someone else.
Ch. 8: Evaluating and Interpreting Information
· Appreciate the Role of Critical Thinking in Evaluating Research Findings
o The critical thinking process is made up of several questions that require a decision. There is also a chance that an error could be made at any point.
· Assess the Dependability of Information Sources
o You need to know how current, reputable, and trustworthy the source is before assuming any of the information is usable. The newest information is not automatically the best and the internet, while useful, can be used by anyone as a method to spread false information. Because online info is compiled by humans (including databases) the information can reflect the biases, priorities, and interests of the person who put the information together. Groups that fund research can create studies made to support their ideas. Think about an oil company that pays for environmental research. That research might paint a rosier picture than research funded by an environmental group. Their research might seem more negative. The reality might likely fall somewhere between the findings of the two groups. It is important to consider what a group might have to gain from the research. Also, never rely on only one source for all of your information. Check information against other, similar sources.
· Assess the Quality of your Evidence
o First you have to decide if there is even enough evidence to come to some sort of judgment. Then, you have to decipher between hard evidence (facts, statistics) and soft evidence (opinions, speculations, and unscientifically analyzed data). If the claims seem too big and exaggerated, they probably are. Check how the information is framed. Which sounds more positive? A 90-percent survival rate or a 10-percent mortality rate? Is the issue clouded by over-the-top language, euphemisms, or demeaning language?
· Interpret Your Findings Accurately and Without Bias
o Now that you’ve done the research, you have to put the puzzle together. Interpreting research doesn’t necessarily mean a solid yes or no. In fact, findings usually suggest something in between which makes critical evaluation important.
· Understand that “Certainty” in Research is an Elusive Goal
o There are three levels of certainty in research. The conclusive answer is the truth, the things that are just so about something. It is what people will “ultimately” agree on. The belief for centuries was that the earth was in the center of the universe. The ultimate truth is that we are not at the center. For the most part, research will leave us with a belief, theory, or what is called a present understanding. While conclusive answers are nice and desirable, they are rare. Most answers are either probable or inconclusive. Probable answers have the most potential to be true while inconclusive answers show that the truth will be more complex difficult to find than anticipated. How certain are we?
o Assumptions are a part of every-day life as well as research. We use our underlying assumptions to do research. If every time you wanted to drive you had to re-invent the wheel, you probably wouldn’t go many places. That’s what happens with research when we assume things like mice and humans are biologically similar. Assumptions become a problem when we don’t evaluate them. Ask other people to help you identify your own assumptions. Personal bias is another issue that comes into play. Everyone is biased in some way. You can manage personal biases by evaluating your attitudes towards things. This way, you don’t end up rationalizing your bias in your research. Another important thing to consider would be other potential interpretations of the same information.
· Recognize Common errors in Reasoning and Statistical Analysis
o Interpreting information leads to inferences based on what we already know. Inferences can be useful as long as they are evaluated. Can these findings be generalized? Does X really cause Y? Can we trust these numbers and what exactly do they mean? And then there are the three major reasoning errors. Faulty generalization is based in limited evidence (Iraq War). Without critically assessing a piece of information, we can come to a completely inaccurate conclusion. Not all evidence reveals some greater truth. Faulty casual reasoning seeks to explain why something happened or what will happen but ignores other causes/effects, confuses correlation with causation, or is the result of rationalizing. Definite cause can be apparent, like how the moon’s orbit causes the tides to rise and fall. Unless you’re Bill O’Reily…
"...tide goes in, tide goes out. Never a miscommunication. You can't explain that."
o Faulty statistical analysis occurs when someone attempts (unsuccessfully) to determine the meaning of collected numbers. While these numbers seem more accurate and objective, they can be misleading as a result of faulty analysis. There are several common fallacies.
§ The sanitized statistic is a statistic that has been manipulated to obscure facts.
§ The meaningless statistic is an exact number used to quantify something vague or inexact.
§ The undefined average uses either a mean, median, or mode as an “average”
§ The distorted percentage figure is a percentage reported without explanation of the original numbers used or the margin of error is ignored.
§ The bogus ranking occurs when items are compared on the basis of poorly-defined criteria
§ Confusion of correlation with causation: Correlation mathematically defines the strength of a relationship between two things. Causation is production of the actual effect.
§ The biased meta-analysis occurs when a group of studies are studied and because a human is compiling the information, their bias can be reflected in what studies are included and omitted.
§ The fallible computer model is fallible because it processes complex assumptions to make predictions.
§ Misleading terminology is a problem because terminology often means something different or something more than what the common person might realize.
· Understand that Research Carries the Potential for Error
o Research is conducted by humans and therefore always has the potential for error. A survey is only reliable when it produces consistent results and valid when the responses are trustworthy. There are flaws in research studies as well because each type has its own limitations. Epidemiological studies are limited because they don’t prove anything. Laboratory studies are limited because mice are not people and because reactions in cells don’t necessarily apply to an entire organism. Human exposure studies are limited by the groups that are part of the study.
o The public is often given a distorted picture because of deceptive reporting. Stories are sometimes suppressed to keep the public from knowing how bad a situation may be.
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